James Hutton’s Theory of the Phenomena Common to Stratified and Unstratified Bodies

John Playfair

The series of changes which fossil bodies are destined to undergo, does not cease with their elevation above the level of the sea; it assumes, however, a new direction, and from the moment that they are raised up to the surface, is constantly exerted in reducing them again under the dominion of the ocean. The solidity is now destroyed which was acquired in the bowels of the earth; and as the bottom of the sea is the great laboratory, where loose materials are mineralized and formed into stone, the atmosphere is the region where stones are decomposed, and again resolved into earth.

This decomposition of all mineral substances, exposed to the air, is continual, and is brought about by a multitude of agents, both chemical and mechanical, of which some are known to us, and many, no doubt, remain to be discovered. Among the various aeriform fluids which compost our atmosphere, one is already distinguished as the grand principle of mineral decomposition; the others are not inactive, and to them we must add moisture, heat, and perhaps light; substances which, from their affinities to the elements of mineral bodies, have a power of entering into combination with them, and of thus diminishing the forces by which they are united to one another. By the action of air and moisture, the metallic particles, particularly the iron, which enters in great abundance into the composition of almost all fossils, becomes oxydated in such a degree as to lose its tenacity; so that the texture of the surface is destroyed, and a part of the body resolved into earth.

Some earths, again, such as the calcareous, are immediately dissolved by water; and though the quantity so dissolved be extremely small, the operation, by being continually renewed, produces a slow but perpetual corrosion, by which the greatest rocks must in time be subdued. The action of water in destroying hard bodies into which it has obtained entrance, is much assisted by the vicissitudes of heat and cold, especially when the latter extends as far as the point of congelation; for the water when frozen, occupies a greater space than before, and if the body is compact enough to refuse room for this expansion, its parts are torn asunder by a repulsive force acting in every direction.

Beside these causes of mineral decomposition, the action of which we can in some measure trace, there are others known to us only by their effects.

We see, for instance, the purest rock crystal affected by exposure to the weather, its lustre tarnished, and the polish of its surface impaired, but we know nothing of the power by which these operations are performed. Thus also, in the precautions which the mineralogist takes to preserve the fresh fracture of his specimens, we have a proof how indiscriminately all the productions of the animal kingdom are exposed to the attacks of their unknown enemies, and we perceive how difficult it is to delay the beginnings of a process which no power whatever can finally counteract.

The mechanical forces employed in the disintegration of mineral substances, are more easily marked than the chemical. Here again water appears as the most active enemy of hard and solid bodies; and, in every state, from transparent vapour to solid ice, from the smallest rill to the greatest river, it attacks whatever has emerged above the level of the sea, and labours incessantly to restore it to the deep. The parts loosened and disengaged by the chemical agents, are carried down by the rains, and, in their descent, rub and grind the superficies of other bodies. Thus water, though incapable of acting on hard substances by direct attrition, is the cause of their being so acted on; and, when it descends in torrents, carrying with it sand, gravel, and fragments of rock, it may be truly said to turn the forces of the mineral kingdom against itself. Every separation which it makes is necessarily permanent, and the parts once detached can never be united, save at the bottom of the ocean. [p.315]

But it would far exceed the limits of this sketch, to pursue the causes of mineral decomposition through all their forms. It is sufficient to remark, that the consequence of so many minute, but indefatigable agents, all working together, and having gravity in their favour, is a system of universal decay and degradation, which may be traced over the whole surface of the land, from the mountain top to the sea shore. That we may perceive the full evidence of this truth, one of the most important in the natural history of the globe, we will begin our survey from the latter of these stations, and retire gradually toward the former.

If the coast is bold and rocky, it speaks a language easy to be interpreted. Its broken and abrupt contour, the deep gulfs and salient promontories by which it is indented, and the proportion which these irregularities bear to the force of the waves, combined with the inequality of hardness in the rocks, prove, that the present line of shore has been determined by the action of the sea. The naked and precipitous cliffs which overhang the deep, the rocks hollowed, perforated, as they are farther advanced in the sea, and at last insulated, lead to the same conclusion, and mark very clearly so many different stages of decay. It is true, we do not see the successive steps of this progress exemplified in the states of the same individual rock, but we see them clearly in different individuals; and the conviction thus produced, when the phenomena are sufficiently multiplied and varied, is as irresistible, as if we saw the changes actually effected in the moment of observation.

On such shores, the fragments of rock once detached, become instruments of further destruction, and make a part of the powerful artillery with which the ocean assails the bulwarks of the land: they are impelled against the rocks, from which they break off other fragments, and the whole are thus ground against one another; whatever be their hardness, they are reduced to gravel, the smooth surface and round figure of which, are the most certain proofs of a detritus which nothing can resist.

Again, where the sea coast is flat, we have abundant evidence of the degradation of the land in the beaches of sand and small gravel; the sand banks and shoals that are constantly changing; the alluvial land at the mouths of the rivers; the bars that seem to oppose their discharge into the sea, and the shallowness of the sea itself. On such coasts, the land usually seems to gain upon the sea, whereas, on shores of a bolder aspect, it is the sea that generally appears to gain upon the land. What the land acquires in extent, however, it loses in elevation; and, whether its surface increase or diminish, the depredations made on it are in both cases evinced with equal certainty.

If we proceed in our survey from the shores, inland, we meet at every step with the fullest evidence of the same truths, and particularly in the nature and economy of rivers. Every river seems to consist of a main trunk, fed from a variety of branches, each running in a valley proportioned to its size, and all of them together forming a system of valleys, communicating with one another, and having such a nice adjustment of their declivities, that none of them join the principal valley, either on too high or too low a level; a circumstance which would be infinitely improbable, if each of these valleys were not the work of the stream that flows in it.

If indeed a river consisted of a single stream, without branches, running in a straight valley, it might be supposed that some great concussion, or some powerful torrent, had opened at once the channel by which its waters are conducted to the ocean; but, when the usual form of a river is considered, the trunk divided into many branches, which rise at a great distance from one another, and these again subdivided into an infinity of smaller ramifications, it becomes strongly impressed upon the mind, that all these channels have been cut by the waters themselves; that they have been slowly dug out by the washing and erosion of the land; and that it is by the repeated touches of the same instrument, that this curious assemblage of lines has been engraved so deeply on the surface of the globe.

The changes which have taken place in the courses of rivers, are also to be traced, in many instances, by successive platforms, of flat alluvial land, rising one above another, and marking the different levels on which the river has run at different periods of time. Of these, the number to be distinguished, in some instances, is not less than four, or even five; and this necessarily carries us back, like all the operations we are now treating of to an antiquity extremely remote: for, if it be considered, that each change which the river makes in its bed, obliterates at least a part of the monuments of former changes, we shall be convinced, that only a small part of the progression can leave any distinct memorial behind it, and that there is no reason to think, that, in the part which we see, the beginning is included.

In the same manner, when a river undermines its banks, it often discovers deposits of sand and gravel, that have been made when it ran on a higher level than it does at present. In other instances, the same strata are seen on both the banks, though the bed of the river is now sunk deep between them, and perhaps holds as winding a course through the solid rock, as if it flowed along the surface; a proof that it must have begun to sink its bed, when it ran through such loose materials as opposed but a very inconsiderable resistance to its stream. A river, of which the course is both serpentine and deeply excavated in the rock, is among the phenomena, by which the slow waste of the land, and also the cause of that waste, are most directly pointed out.

It is, however, where rivers issue through narrow defiles among mountains, that the identity of the strata on both sides is most easily recognized, and remarked at the same time with the greatest wonder. On observing the Potomack, where it penetrates the ridge of the Alegany mountains, or the Irish, as it issues from the defiles of Altai, there is no man, however little addicted to geological speculations, who does not immediately acknowledge that the mountain was once continued quite across the space in which the river now flows; and if he ventures to reason concerning the cause of so wonderful a change, he ascribes it to some great convulsion of nature, which has torn the mountain asunder, and opened a passage for the waters. It is only the philosopher, who has deeply meditated on the effects which action long continued is able to produce, and on the simplicity of the means which nature employs in all her operations, who sees in this nothing but the gradual working of a stream, that once flowed over the top of the ridge which it now intersects, and has cut its course through the rock, in the same way, and almost with the same instrument, by which the lapidary divides a block of marble or granite.

It is highly interesting to trace up, in this manner, the action of causes with which we are familiar, to the production of effects, which at first seem to require the introduction of unknown and extraordinary powers; and it is no less interesting to observe, how skilfully nature has balanced the action of all the minute causes of waste, and rendered them conducive to the general good. Of this we have a most remarkable instance, in the provision made for preserving the soil, or the coat of vegetable mould spread out over the surface of the earth. This coat, as it consists of loose materials, is easily washed away by the rains, and is continually carried down by the rivers into the sea. This effect is visible to every one; the earth is removed not only in the form of sand and gravel, but its finer particles suspended in the waters, tinge those of some rivers continually, and those of all occasionally, that is, when they are flooded or swollen with rains. The quantity of earth thus carried down, varies according to circumstances; it has been computed, in some instances, that the water of a river in a flood, contains earthy matter suspended in it, amounting to more than the two hundred and fiftieth part of its own bulk. The soil, therefore, is continually diminished, its parts being transported from higher to lower levels, and finally delivered into the sea. But it is a fact, that the soil, notwithstanding, remains the same in quantity, or at least nearly the same, and must have done so, ever since the earth was the receptacle of animal or vegetable life. The soil, therefore, is augmented from other causes, just as much, at an average, as it is diminished by that now mentioned; and this augmentation evidently can proceed from nothing but the constant and slow disintegration of the rocks. In the permanence, therefore, of a coat of vegetable mould on the surface of the earth, we have a demonstrative proof of the continual destruction of the rocks; and cannot but admire the skill with which the powers of the many chemical and mechanical agents employed in this complicated work, are so adjusted, as to make the supply and the waste of the soil exactly equal to one another.

Before we take leave of the rivers and the plains, we must remark another fact, often observed in the natural history of the latter, and clearly evincing the former existence of immense bodies of strata, in situations from which they have now entirely disappeared. The fact here alluded to is, the great quantity of round and hard gravel, often to be met with in the soil, under such circumstances, as prove, that it can only have come from the decomposition of rocks, that once occupied the very ground over which this gravel is now spread. In the chalk country, for instance, about London, the quantity of flints in the soil is every where great; and, in particular situations, nothing but flinty gravel is found to a considerable depth. Now, the source from which these flints are derived is quite evident, for they are precisely the same with those contained in the chalk beds, wherever these last are found undisturbed, and from the destruction of such beds they no doubt originated. Hence a great thickness of chalk must have been decomposed, to yield the quantities of flints now in the soil of these countries; for the flints are but thinly scattered through the native chalk, compared with their abundance in the loose earth. To afford, for example, such a body of flinty gravel as is found about Kensington, what an enormous quantity of chalk rock must have been destroyed? [p.319]

This argument, which Dr. Hutton has applied particularly to the chalk countries, may be extended to many others. The great plain of Crau, near the mouth of the Rhone, is well known, and is regarded with wonder, even in ages when the natural history of the globe was, not an object of much attention. The immense quantity of large round gravel stones, with which this extensive plain is entirely covered, has been supposed, by some mineralogists, to have been brought down by the Durance, and other torrents, from the Alps; but, on further examination, has been found to be of the same kind that is contained in certain horizontal layers of pudding-stone, which are the basis of the whole plain. It cannot be doubted, therefore, that the vast body of gravel spread over it, has originated from the destruction of layers of the same rock, which may perhaps have risen to a great height above what is now the surface. Indeed, from knowing the depth of the gravel that covers the plain, and the average quantity of the like gravel contained in a given thickness of rock, one might estimate how much of the latter has been actually worn away. Whether data precise enough could be found, to give any weight to such a computation, must be left for future inquiry to determine.

In these instances, chalk and pudding-stone, by containing in themselves parts infinitely less destructible than their general mass, have, after they are worn away, left behind them very unequivocal marks of their existence. The same has happened in the case of mineral veins, where the substances least subject to dissolution have remained, and are scattered at a great distance from their native place. Thus gold, the least liable to decomposition of all the metals, is very generally diffused through the earth, and is found, in a greater or less abundance, in the sand of almost all rivers. But the native place of this mineral is the solid rock, and from thence it must have made its way into the soil. This, therefore, is another proof of the vast extent to which the degradation of the land, and of the rock, which is the basis of it, has been carried; and consequently, of the great difference between the elevation and shape of the earth’s surface in the present, and in former ages.

The veins of tin furnish an argument of the same kind. The ores of this metal are very indestructible, and little subject to decomposition, so that they remain very long in the ground without change. Where there are tin veins, as in Cornwall, the tin-stone or tin ore is found in great abundance in such vallies or streams as have the same direction with the veins; and hence the streaming, as it is called, or washing of the earth, to obtain the tin-stone from it. Now, if it be considered, that none of this ore can have come into the soil but from parts of a vein actually destroyed, it must appear evident that a great waste of these veins has taken place, and consequently of the schistus or granite in which they are contained.

These lessons, which the geologist is taught in flat and open countries, become more striking, by the study of those Alpine tracts, where the surface of the earth attains its greatest elevation. If we suppose him placed for the first time in the midst of such a scene, as soon as he has recovered from the impression made by the novelty and magnificence of the spectacle before him, he begins to discover the footsteps of time, and to perceive, that the works of nature, usually deemed the most permanent, are those on which the characters of vicissitude are most deeply imprinted. He sees himself in the midst of a vast ruin, where the precipices which rise on all sides with such boldness and asperity, the sharp peaks of the granite mountains, and the huge fragments that surround their bases, do but mark so many epochs in the progress of decay, and point out the energy of those destructive causes, which even the magnitude and solidity of such great bodies have been unable to resist.

The result of a more minute investigation, is in perfect unison with this general impression. Whence is it, that the elevation of mountains is so obviously connected with the hardness and indestructibility of the rocks which compose them? Why is it, that a lofty mountain of soft and secondary rock is nowhere to be found; and that such chains, as the Pyrenees or the Alps, never consist of any but the hardest stone, of granite, for instance, or of those primary strata, which, if we are to credit the preceding theory, have been twice heated in the fires, and twice tempered in the waters, of the mineral regions? Is it not plain that this arises, not from any direct connection between the hardness of stones, and their height in the atmosphere, but from this, that the waste and detritus to which all things are subject, will not allow soft and weak substances to remain long in an exposed and elevated situation? Were it not for this, the secondary rocks would be in position superincumbent on the primary, (as they no doubt have at one time been,) in the highest as well as the lowest situations, or among the mountains as well as the plains.

Again, wherefore is it, that among all mountains, remarkable for their ruggedness and asperity, the rock, on examination, is always found of very unequal destructibility, some parts yielding to the weather, and to the other causes of disintegration, much more slowly than the rest, and having strength sufficient to support themselves, when left alone, in slender pyramids, bold projections, and overhanging cliffs? Where, on the other hand, the rock wastes uniformly, the mountains are similar to one another; their swells and slopes are gentle, and they are bounded by a waving and continuous surface. The intermediate degrees of resistance which the rocks oppose to the causes of destruction, produce intermediate forms. It is this which gives to the mountains, of every different species of rock, a different habit and expression, and which, in particular, has imparted to those of granite that venerable and majestic character, by which they rarely fail to be distinguished.

The structure of the vallies among the mountains, shows clearly to what cause their existence is to be ascribed. Here we have first a large valley, communicating directly with the plain, and winding between high ridges of mountains, while the river in the bottom of it descends over a surface, remarkable, in such a scene, for its uniform declivity. Into this, open a multitude of transverse or secondary vallies, intersecting the ridges on either side of the former, each bringing a contribution to the main stream, proportioned to its magniture; and, except where a cataract now and then intervenes, all having that nice adjustment in their levels, which is the more wonderful, the greater the irregularity of the surface. These secondary vallies have others of a smaller size opening into them; and, among mountains of the first order, where all is laid out on the greatest scale, these ramifications are continued to a fourth, and even a fifth, each diminishing in size as it increases in elevation, and as its supply of water is less. Through them all this law is in general observed, that where a higher valley joins a lower one, of the two angles which it makes with the latter, that which is obtuse is always on the descending side; a law that is the same with that which regulates the confluence of streams running on a surface nearly of uniform inclination. This alone is a proof that the rallies are the work of the streams; and indeed what else but the water itself, working its way through obstacles of unequal resistance, could have opened or kept up a communication between the inequalities of an irregular and alpine surface?

Many more arguments, all leading to the same conclusion, may be deduced from the general facts, known in the natural history of mountains; and, if the Oreologist would trace back the progress of waste, till he come in sight of that original structure, of which the remains are still so vast, he perceives an immense mass of solid rock, naked and unshapely, as it first emerged from the deep, and incomparably greater than all that is now before him. The operation of rains and torrents, modified by the hardness and tenacity of the rock, has worked out the whole into its present form; has hollowed out the vallies, and gradually detached the mountains from the general mass, cutting down their sides into steep precipices at one place, and smoothing them into gentle declivities at another. From this has resulted a transportation of materials, which, both for the quantity of the whole, and the magnitude of the individual fragments, must seem incredible to every one, who has not learned to calculate the effects of continued action, and to reflect, that length of time can convert accidental into steady causes. Hence fragments of rock, from the central chain, are found to have travelled into distant vallies, even where many inferior ridges intervene: hence the granite of Mont Blanc is seen in the plains of Lombardy, or on the sides of Jura; and the ruins of the Carpathian mountains lie scattered over the shores of the Baltic.

Thus, with Dr. Hutton, we shall be disposed to consider those great chains of mountains, which traverse the surface of the globe, as cut out of masses vastly greater, and more lofty than any thing that now remains. The present appearances afford no data for calculating the original magnitude of these masses, or the height to which they may have been elevated. The nearest estimate we can form is, where a chain or group of mountains, like those of Bosa in the Alps, is horizontally stratified, and where, of consequence, the undisturbed position of the mineral beds enables us to refer the whole of the present inequalities of the surface to the operation of waste or decay. These mountains, as they now stand, may not inaptly be compared to the pillars of earth which workmen leave behind them, to afford a measure of the whole quantity of earth which they have removed. As the pillars, (considering the mountains as such,) are in this case of less height than they originally were, so the measure furnished by them is but a limit, which the quantity sought must necessarily exceed.

Such, according to Dr. Hutton’s theory, are the changes which the daily operations of waste have produced on the surface of the globe. These operations, inconsiderable if taken separately, become great, by inspiring all to the same end, never counteracting one another, but proceeding, through a period of indefinite extent, continually in the same direction. Thus every thing descends, nothing returns upward; the hard and soft bodies every where dissolve, and the loose and soft no where consolidate. The powers which tend to preserve, and those which tend to change the condition of the earth’s surface, are never in equilibrio; the latter are, in all cases, the most powerful, and, in respect of the former, are like living in comparison of dead forces. Hence the law of decay is one which suffers no exception: The elements of all bodies were once loose and unconnected, and to the same state nature has appointed that they should all return.

It affords no presumption against the reality of this progress, that, in respect of man, it is too slow to be immediately perceived. The utmost portion of it to which our experience can extend, is evanescent, in comparison with the whole, and must be regarded as the momentary increment of a vast progression, circumscribed by no other limits than the duration of the world. Time performs the office of integrating the infinitesimal parts of which this progression is made up; it collects them into one sum, and produces from them an amount greater than any that can be assigned.

While on the surface of the earth so much is every where going to decay, no new production of mineral substances is found in any region accessible to man. The instances of what are called petrifactions, or the formation of stony substances by means of water, which we sometimes observe, whether they be ferruginous concretions, or calcareous, or, as happens in some rare cases, siliceous stalactites, are too few in number and too inconsiderable in extent, to be deemed material exceptions to this general rule. The bodies thus generated, also, are no sooner formed, than they become subject to waste and dissolution, like all the other hard substances in nature; so that they but retard for a while the progress by which they are all resolved into dust, and sooner or later committed to the bosom of the deep.

We are not, however, to imagine, that there is nowhere any means of repairing this waste; for, on comparing the conclusion at which we are now arrived, viz. that the present continents are all going to decay, and their materials descending into the ocean, with the proposition first laid down, that these same continents are composed of materials which must have been collected from the decay of former rocks, it is impossible not to recognise two corresponding steps of the same progress; of a progress, by which mineral substances are subjected to the same series of changes, and alternately wasted away and renovated. In the same manner, as the present mineral substances derive their origin from substances similar to themselves; so, from the land now going to decay, the sand and gravel forming on the sea shore, or in the beds of rivers; from the shells and corals, which in such enormous quantities are every day accumulated in the bosom of the sea; from the drift wood, and the multitude of vegetable and animal remains continually deposited in the ocean: from all these we cannot doubt, that strata are now forming in those regions, to which nature seems to have confined the powers of mineral reproduction; from which, after being consolidated, they are again destined to emerge, and to exhibit a series of changes similar to the past.

How often these vicissitudes of decay and renovation have been repeated, is not for us to determine; they constitute a series, of which, as the author of this theory has remarked, we neither see the beginning nor the end; a circumstance that accords well with what is known concerning other parts of the economy of the world. In the continuation of the different species of animals and vegetables that inhabit the earth, we discern neither a beginning nor an end; and, in the planetary motions, where geometry has carried the eye so far both into the future and the past, we discover no mark, either of the commencement or the termination of the present order. It is unreasonable, indeed, to suppose, that such marks should any where exist. The Author of nature has not given laws to the universe, which like the institutions of men, carry in themselves the elements of their own destruction. He has not permitted, in his works, any symptom of infancy or of old age, or any sign by which we may estimate either their future or their past duration. He may put an end, as he no doubt gave a beginning, to the present system, at some determinate period; but we may safely conclude, that this great catastrophe will not be brought about by any of the laws now existing, and that it is not indicated by any thing which we perceive.

To assert, therefore, that, in the economy of the world, we see no mark, either of a beginning or an end, is very different from affirming, that the world had no beginning, and will have no end. The first is a conclusion justified by common sense, as well as sound philosophy; while the second is a presumptuous and unwarrantable assertion, for which no reason from experience or analogy can ever be assigned. Dr. Hutton might, therefore, justly complain of the uncandid criticism, which, by substituting the one of these assertions for the other, endeavoured to load his theory with the reproach of atheism and impiety. Mr. Kirwan, in bringing forward this harsh and ill-founded censure, was neither [p.325] animated by the spirit, nor guided by the maxims of true philosophy. By the spirit of philosophy, he must have been induced to reflect that such poisoned weapons as he was preparing to use, are hardly ever allowable in scientific contest, as having a less direct tendency to overthrow the system, than to hurt the person of an adversary, and to wound, perhaps incurably, his mind, his reputation, or his peace. By the maxims of philosophy, he must have been reminded, that, in no part of the history of nature, has any mark been discovered, either of the beginning or the end of the present order; and that the geologist sadly mistakes, both the object of his science and the limits of his understanding, who thinks it his business to explain the means employed by Infinite Wisdom for establishing the laws which now govern the world.

By attending to these obvious considerations, Mr. Kirwan would have avoided a very illiberal and ungenerous proceeding; and, however he might have differed from Dr. Hutton as to the truth of his opinions, he would not have censured their tendency with such rash and unjustifiable severity.

But, if this author may be blamed for wanting the temper, or neglecting the rules of philosophic investigation, he is hardly less culpable, for having so slightingly considered the scope and spirit of a work which he condemned so freely. In that work, instead of finding the world represented as the result of necessity or chance, which might be looked for, if the accusations of atheism or impiety were well rounded, we see everywhere the utmost attention to discover, and the utmost disposition to admire, the instances of wise and beneficent design manifested in the structure, or economy of the world. The enlarged views of these, which his geological system afforded, appeared to Dr. Hutton himself as its most valuable result. They were the parts of it which he contemplated with greatest delight; and he would have been less flattered, by being told of the ingenuity and originality of his theory, than of the addition which it had made to our knowledge of final causes. It was natural, therefore, that he should be hurt by an attempt to accuse him of opinions, so different from those which he had always taught; and if he answered Mr. Kirwan’s attack with warmth or asperity, we must ascribe it to the indignation excited by unmerited reproach.

But to return to the natural history of the earth: Though there be in it no data, from which the commencement of the present order can be ascertained, there are many by which the existence of that order may be traced back to an antiquity extremely remote. The beds of primitive schistus, for instance, contain sand, gravel, and other materials, collected, as already shown, from the dissolution of mineral bodies; which bodies, therefore, must have existed long before the oldest part of the land was formed. Again, in this gravel we sometimes find pieces of sandstone, and of other compound rocks, by which we are of course carried back a step farther, so as to reach a system of things, from which the present is the third in succession; and this may be considered as the most ancient epoch of which any memorial exists in the records of the fossil kingdom.

Next in the order of time to the consolidation of the primary strata, we must place their elevation, when, from being horizontal, and at the bottom of the sea, they were broken, set on edge, and raised to the surface. It is even probable, as formerly observed, that to this succeeded a depression of the same strata, and a second elevation, so that they have twice visited the superior, and twice the inferior regions. During the second immersion, were formed, first, the great bodies of pudding-stone, that in so many instances lie immediately above them, and next were deposited the strata that are strictly denominated secondary.

The third great event was the raising up of this compound body of old and new strata from the bottom of the sea, and forming it into the dry land, or the continents, as they now exist. Contemporary with this, we must suppose the injection of melted matter among the strata, and the consequent formation of the crystallized and unstratified rocks, namely, the granite, metallic veins, and veins of porphyry and whinstone. This, however, is to be considered as embracing a period of great duration; and it must always be recollected, that veins are found of a very different formation; so that when we speak generally, it is perhaps impossible to state anything more precise concerning their antiquity, than that they are posterior to the strata, and that the veins of whinstone seem to be the most recent of all, as they traverse every other.

In the fourth place, with respect to time, we must class the facts that regard the detritus and waste of the land, and must carefully distinguish them from the more ancient phenomena of the mineral kingdom. Here we are to reckon the shaping of all the present inequalities of the surface; the formation of hills of gravel, and of what have been called tertiary strata, consisting of loose and unconsolidated materials; also collections of shells not mineralized, like those in Touraine; such petrifactions as those contained in the rock of Gibraltar, on the coast of Dalmatia, and in the caves of Bayreuth. The bones of land animals found in the soil, such as those of Siberia, or North America, are probably more recent than any of the former.

These phenomena, then, are all so many marks of the lapse of time, among which the principles of geology enable us to distinguish a certain order, so that we know some of them to be more, and others to be less distant, but without being able to ascertain, with any exactness, the proportion of the immense intervals which separate them. These intervals admit of no comparison with the astronomical measures of time, they cannot be expressed by the revolutions of the sun or of the moon; nor is there any synchronism between the most recent epochs of the mineral kingdom, and the most ancient of our ordinary chronology.

On what is now said is grounded another objection to Dr. Hutton’s theory, namely, that the high antiquity ascribed by it to the earth, is inconsistent with that system of chronology which rests on the authority of the Sacred Writings. This objection would no doubt be of weight, if the high antiquity in question were not restricted merely to the globe of the earth, but were also extended to the human race. That the origin of mankind does not go back beyond six or seven thousand years, is a position so involved in the narrative of the Mosaic books, that anything inconsistent with it would no doubt stand in opposition to the testimony of those ancient records. On this subject, however, geology is silent; and the history of arts and sciences, when traced as high as any authentic monuments extend, refers the beginnings of civilization to a date not very different from that which has just been mentioned, and infinitely within the limits of the most recent of the epochs, marked by the physical revolutions of the globe.

But on the other hand, the authority of the Sacred Books seems to be but little interested in what regards the mere antiquity of the earth itself; nor does it appear that their language is to be understood literally concerning the age of that body, any more than concerning its figure or its motion. The theory of Dr. Hutton stands here precisely on the same footing with the system of Copernicus; for there is no reason to suppose that it was the purpose of revelation to furnish a standard of geological, any more than of astronomical science. It is admitted, on all hands, that the Scriptures are not intended to resolve physical questions, or to explain matters in no way related to the morality of human actions; and if, in consequence of this principle, a considerable latitude of interpretation were not allowed, we should continue at this moment to believe that the earth is flat; that the sun moves around the earth; and that the circumference of the circle is no more than three times its diameter.

It is but reasonable, therefore, that we should extend to the geologist the same liberty of speculation, which the astronomer and mathematician are already in possession of; and this may be done, by supposing that the chronology of Moses relates only to the human race. This liberty is not more necessary to Dr. Hutton than to other theorists. No ingenuity has been able to reconcile the natural history of the globe with the opinion of its recent origin; and accordingly the cosmologies of Kirwan and Deluc, though contrived with more mineralogical skill, are not less forced and unsatisfactory than those of Burner and Whiston.

It is impossible to look back on the system which we have thus endeavoured to illustrate, without being struck with the novelty and beauty of the views which it sets before us. The very plan and scope of it distinguish it from all other theories of the earth, and point it out as a work of great and original invention. The sole object of such theories has hitherto been, to explain the manner in which the present laws of the mineral kingdom were first established, or began to exist, without treating of the manner in which they now proceed, and by which their continuance is provided for. The authors of these theories have accordingly gone back to a state of things altogether unlike the present, and have confined their reasonings, or their fictions, to a crisis which has never existed but once, and which can never return. Dr. Hutton, on the other hand, has guided his investigation by the philosophical maxim, Cansam naturalem et assiduam quaerimus, non ratam et fortuitam. His theory, accordingly, presents us with a system of wise and provident economy, where the same instruments are continually employed, and where the decay and renovation of fossils being carried on at the same time in the different regions allotted to them, preserve in the earth the conditions essential for the support of animal and vegetable life. We have been long accustomed to admire that beautiful contrivance in nature, by which the water of the ocean, drawn up in vapour by the atmosphere, imparts, in its descent, fertility to the earth, and becomes the great cause of vegetation and of life; but now we find, that this vapour not only fertilizes, but creates the soil; prepares it from the solid rock, and, after employing it in the great operations of the surface, carries it back into the regions where all its mineral characters are renewed. Thus, the circulation of moisture through the air, is a prime mover, not only in the annual succession of the seasons, but in the great [p.329] geological cycle, by which the waste and reproduction of entire continents is circumscribed. Perhaps a more striking view than this, of the wisdom that presides over nature, was never presented by any philosophical system, nor a greater addition ever made to our knowledge of final causes. It is an addition which gives consistency to the rest, by proving that equal foresight is exerted in providing for the whole and for the parts, and that no less care is taken to maintain the constitution of the earth, than to preserve the tribes of animals and vegetables which dwell on its surface. In a word, it is the peculiar excellence of this theory, that it ascribes to the phenomena of geology an order similar to that which exists in the provinces of nature with which we are best acquainted; that it produces seas and continents, not by accident, but by the operation of regular and uniform causes; that it makes the decay of one part subservient to the restoration of another, and gives stability to the whole, not by perpetuating individuals, but by reproducing them in succession.

Again, in the details of this theory, and the ample deduction on which it is rounded, we meet with many facts and observations, either entirely new, or hitherto very imperfectly understood. Thus, the veins which produce from masses of granite, and penetrate the incumbent schistus, had either escaped the observation of former mineralogists, or the importance of the phenomena had been entirely overlooked. Dr. Hutton has described the appearances with great accuracy, and drawn from them the most interesting conclusions. At the junction of the primary and secondary strata, the facts which he has noted had been observed by others; but no one, I think, had so fully understood the language which they speak, or had so clearly perceived the consequences that necessarily follow from them. He is the first who distinctly pointed out the characters which distinguish whinstone from lava, and who explained the true relation that subsists between these substances. He also discovered the induration of the strata, in contact with veins of whin, and the charring of the coal in their vicinity. His theory also enabled him to determine the affinity of whinstone and granite to one another, and their relation to the other great bodies of the mineral kingdom.

To the observations of the same excellent geologist We are indebted for the knowledge of the general and important fact, that all the hard substances of the mineral kingdom, when elevated into the atmosphere, have a tendency to decay, and are subject to a disintegration and waste, to which no limit can be set but that of their entire destruction; that no provision is made on the surface for repairing this waste, and that there no new fossil is produced; that the formation of all the varied scenery which the surface of the earth exhibits, depends on the operation of causes, the momentary exertions of which are familiar to us, though we knew not before the effects which their accumulated action was able to produce. These are facts in the natural history of the earth, the discovery of which is due to Dr. Hutton; and, should we lay all further speculation aside, and consider the theory of the earth as a work too great to be attempted by man, we must still regard the phenomena and laws just mentioned, as forming a solid and valuable addition to our knowledge.

If we would compare this theory with others, as to the invisible agents which it employs, we must consider, that fire and water are the two powers which all of them must make use of, so that they can differ only by the way in which they combine these powers. In Dr. Hutton’s system, water is first employed to deposit and arrange, and then fire to consolidate, mineralize, and lastly, to elevate the strata; but, with respect to the unstratified or crystallized substances, the action of fire only is recognised. The system having least affinity to this is the Neptunian, which ascribes the formation of all minerals to the action of water alone, and extends this hypothesis even to the unstratified rocks. Here, therefore, the action of fire is entirely excluded; and the Neptunists have certainly made a great sacrifice to the love of truth, or of paradox, in rejecting the assistance of so powerful an auxiliary.

In the systems which employ the agency of the latter element, we are to look for a greater resemblance to that of Dr. Hutton, though many and great marks of distinction are easily perceived. In the cosmologies, for example, of Leibnitz and Button, fire and water are both employed, as well as in this; but they are employed in a reverse order. These philosophers introduce the action of fire first, and then the action of water, which is to invert the order of nature altogether, as the consolidation of the rocks must be posterior to their stratification. Indeed, the theory of Button is singularly defective: besides inverting the order of the two great operations of consolidation and stratification, and, of course, giving no real explanation of the latter, it gives no account of the elevation, or highly inclined position of the strata; it makes no distinction between stratified and unstratified bodies, nor does it offer any but the most unsatisfactory explanation of the inequalities of the earth’s surface. This system, therefore, has but a very distant resemblance to the Huttonian theory.

The system of Lazzaro Moro has been remarked as approaching nearer to this theory than any other; and it is certain that one very important principle is common to them both. The theory of the Italian geologist was chiefly directed to the explanation of the remains of marine animals, which are found in mountains far from the sea; and it appears to have been suggested to him by the phenomena of the Campi Phlegraei, and by the production of the new island of Santorini in the Archipelago. He accordingly supposes that the islands and continents have been all raised up, like the above mentioned island, from the bottom of the sea, by the force of volcanic fire: that these fires began to bum under the bottom of the ocean, soon after the creation of the world, when as yet the ocean covered the whole earth; that they at first elevated a portion of the land; and in this primitive land no shells are found, as the original ocean was destitute of fish. The volcanoes continuing to burn, under the sea, after the creation of animated nature, the strata that were then raised up by their action were full of shells and other marine objects; and, from the violence with which they were elevated, arose the contortions and inclined position which they frequently possess.

This system is imperfect, as it makes no peculiar provision for the consolidation of the strata, which, according to it, as well as the Neptunian system, must be ascribed to the action, not of fire, but of water. No account is given of the mineralization of the shells found in the strata, or of the difference between them and the shells found loose at the bottom of the sea; and no distinction is made between stratified and unstratified substances. But, with all this, Lazzaro Moro has certainly the merit of having perceived, that some other power than that which deposited the strata, must have been employed for their elevation, and that they have endured the action of a disturbing force.

From this comparison it appears that Dr. Hutton’s theory is sufficiently distinct, even from the theories which approach to it most nearly, to merit, in the strictest sense, the appellation of new and original. There are indeed few inventions or discoveries, recorded in the history of science, to which nearer approaches were not made before they were fully unfolded. It therefore very well deserves to be distinguished by a particular name; and, if it behooves us to follow the analogy observed in the names of the two great systems, which at present divide the opinions of geologists, we may join Mr. Kirwan in calling this the Plutonic system. For my own part, I would rather have it characterized by a less splendid, but juster name, that of the Huttonian theory.

The circumstance, however, which gives to this theory its peculiar character, and exalts it infinitely above all others, is the introduction of the principle of pressure, to modify the effects of heat when applied at the bottom of the sea. This is, in fact, the key to the great enigma of the mineral kingdom, where, while one set of phenomena indicates the action of fire, another set, equally remarkable, seem to exclude the possibility of that action, by presenting us with mineral substances, in such a state as they could never have been brought into by the operation of the fires we see at the surface of the earth. These two classes of phenomena are reconciled together, by admitting the power of compression to confine the volatile parts of bodies when heat is applied to them, in many instances, to undergo fusion, instead of being calcined or dissipated by burning or inflammation. In this hypothesis, which some affect to consider as a principle gratuitously assumed, there appears to me nothing but a very fair and legitimate generalization of the the properties of heat. Combustion and inflammation are chemical processes, to which other conditions are required, beside the presence of a high temperature. The state of the mineral regions makes it reasonable to presume, that these conditions are wanting in the bowels of the earth, where, of consequence, we have a right to look for nothing but expansion and fusion, the only operations which seem essential to heat, and inseparable from the application of it, in certain degrees to certain substances. Though this principle, therefore, had no countenance from analogy, the admirable simplicity, and the unity, which it introduces into the phenomena of geology, would sufficiently justify the application of it to the theory of the earth.

As another excellence of this theory, I may, perhaps, be allowed to remark, that it extends its consequences beyond those to which the author of it has himself adverted, and that it affords, which no geological theory has yet done, a satisfactory explanation of the spheroidal figure of the earth.

Yet, with all these circumstances of originality, grandeur, and simplicity in its favour, with the addition of evidence as demonstrative as the nature of the subject will admit, this theory has many obstacles to overcome, before it meets the general approbation. The greatness of the objects which it sets before us alarms the imagination; the powers which it supposes to be lodged in the subterraneous regions; a heat which has subdued the most refractory rocks, and has melted beds of marble and quartz; an expansive force which has folded up, or broken the strata, and raised whole continents from the bottom of the sea; these are things with which, however certainly they may be proved, the mind cannot soon be familiarized. The change and movement also, which this theory ascribes to all that the senses declare to be most unalterable, raise up against it the same prejudices which formerly opposed the belief in the true system of the world; and it affords a curious proof, how little such prejudices are subject to vary, that as Aristarchus, an ancient follower of that system, was charged with impiety for moving the everlasting Vesta from her place, so Dr. Hutton, nearly on the same ground, has been subjected to the very same accusation. Even the length of time which this theory regards as necessary to the revolutions of the globe, is looked on as belonging to the marvelous; and man, who finds himself constrained by the want of time, or of space, in almost all his undertakings, forgets, that in these, if in anything, the riches of nature reject all limitations.

The evidence which must be opposed to all these causes of incredulity, cannot be fully understood without much study and attention. It requires not only a careful examination of particular instances, but comprehensive views of the whole phenomena of geology; the comparison of things very remote with one another; the interpretation of the obscure by the luminous, and of the doubtful by the decisive appearances. The geologist must not content himself with examining the insulated specimens of his cabinet, or with pursuing the nice subtleties of mineralogical arrangement; he must study the relation of fossils, as they actually exist; he must follow nature into her wildest and most inaccessible abodes; he must select, for the places of his observations, those points from which the variety and gradation of her works can be most extensively and accurately explored. Without such an exact and comprehensive survey, his mind will hardly be prepared to relish the true theory of the earth. "Naturae enim vis atque majestas omnibus momentis fide caret, si quis modo partes atque non, totam complectatur animo."

If indeed this theory of the earth is, as we suppose it to be, the lapse of time must necessarily remove all objections to it, and the progress of science will only develop its evidence more fully. As it stands at present, though true, it must be still imperfect; and it cannot be doubted, that the great principles of it, though established on an [p.334] immovable basis, must yet undergo many modifications, requiring to be limited, in one place, or to be extended, in another. A work of such variety and extent cannot be carried to perfection by the efforts of an individual. Ages may be required to fill up the bold outline which Dr. Hutton has traced with so masterly a hand; to detach the parts more completely from the general mass; to adjust the size and position of the subordinate members; and to give to the whole piece the exact proportion and true colouring of nature.

This, however, in length of time, may be expected from the advancement of science, and from the mutual assistance which parts of Knowledge, seemingly most remote, often afford to one another. Not only may the observations of the mineralogist, in tracts yet unexplored, complete the enumeration of geological facts; and the experiments of the chemist, on subjects not yet subjected to his analysis, afford a more intimate acquaintance with the nature of fossils, and a measure of the power of those chemical agents to which this theory ascribes such vast effects; but also from other sciences, less directly connected with the natural history of the earth, much information may be received. The accurate geographical maps and surveys which are now making; the soundings; the observation of the currents; the barometrical measurements, may all combine to ascertain the reality, and to fix the quantity of those changes which terrestrial bodies continually undergo. Every new improvement in science affords the means of delineating more accurately the face of nature as it now exists, and of transmitting, to future ages, an account, which may be compared with the face of nature as it shall then exist. If, therefore, the science of the present times is destined to survive the physical revolutions of the globe, the Huttonian Theory may be confirmed by historical record; and the author of it will be remembered among the illustrious few, whose systems have been verified by the observations of succeeding ages, supported by facts unknown to themselves, and established by the decisions of a tribunal, slow, but infallible, in distinguishing between truth and falsehood.