The Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands

Charles Darwin

This island [Keeling or Cocos Island] is, therefore, a lofty sub marine mountain, which has a greater inclination than even those of volcanic origin on the land. I will now give a sketch ¹ of the general results at which I have arrived, respecting the origin of the various classes of reefs, which occur scattered over such large spaces of the intertropical seas.

The first consideration to attend to, is, that every observation leads to the conclusion that those lammeliform corals, which are the efficient agents of forming a reef, cannot live at any considerable depth. As far as I have personally seen, I judge of this from carefully examining the impressions on the soundings, which were taken by Captain FitzRoy at Keeling Island, close outside the breakers, and from some others which I obtained at the Mauritius. At a depth under ten fathoms, the arming came up as clean as if it had been dropped on a carpet of thick turf; but as the depth increased, the particles of sand brought up became more and more numerous, until, at last, it was evident the bottom consisted of a smooth layer of calcareous sand, interrupted only at intervals by shelves, composed probably of dead coral rock. To carry on the analogy, the blades of grass grew thinner and thinner, till, at last, the soil was so sterile, that nothing sprung from it.

As long as no facts, beyond those relating to the structure of lagoon islands were known, so as to establish some more comprehensive theory, the belief that corms constructed their habitations, [p.355] or, speaking more correctly, their skeletons, on the circular crests of submarine craters, was both ingenious and very plausible. Yet the sinuous margin of some, as in the Radnack Islands of Kotzebue, one of which is fifty-two miles long, by twenty broad, and the narrowness of others, as in Bow Island (of which there is a chart on a large scale, forming part of the admirable labours of Captain Beechey), must have startled every one who considered this subject.

The very general surprise of all those who have beheld lagoon islands, has perhaps been one chief cause why other reefs, of an equally curious structure have been almost overlooked: ² I allude to the encircling reefs. We will take, as an instance, Vanikoro, celebrated on account of the shipwreck of La Peyrouse. The reef there runs at the distance of nearly two, and in some parts three miles from the shore, and is separated from it by a channel having a general depth between thirty and forty fathoms, and, in one part, no less than fifty, or three hundred feet. Externally, the reef rises from an ocean profoundly deep. Can any thing be more singular than this structure? It is analogous to that of a lagoon, but with an island standing, like a picture in its frame, in the middle. A fringe of low alluvial land in these cases generally surrounds the base of the mountains; this, covered by the most beautiful productions of a tropical land, backed by the abrupt mountains and fronted by a lake of smooth water, only separated from the dark waves of the ocean by a line of breakers, form the elements of the beautiful scenery of Tahiti—so well called the Queen of Islands. We cannot suppose these encircling reefs are based on an external crater, for the central mass sometimes consists of primary rock, or on any accumulation of sedimentary deposits, for the reefs follow indifferently the island itself, or its submarine prolongation. Of this latter ease there is a grand instance in New Caledonia, where the reefs extend no less than 140 miles beyond the island.

The great Barrier which fronts the N.E. coast of Australia, forms a third class of reef. It is described by Flinders as having a length of nearly one thousand miles, and as running parallel to the shore, at a distance of between twenty and thirty miles from it, and, in [p.356] some parts, even of fifty and seventy. The great arm of the sea thus included, has a usual depth of between to. and twenty fathoms, but this increases towards one end to forty and even sixty. This probably is both the grandest and most extraordinary reef now existing in any part of the world.

It must be observed, that the reef itself in the three classes, namely, lagoon, encircling, and barrier, agrees in structure, even in the most minute details: but these I have not space here even to allude to. The difference entirely lies in the absence or presence of neighbouring land, and the relative position which the reefs bear to it. In the two last-mentioned classes, there is one difficulty in undertaking their origin, which must be pointed out. Since the time of Dampier it has been remarked, that high land and deep seas go together. Now when we see a number of mountainous islands coming abruptly down to the sea-shore, we must suppose the strata of which they are composed, are continued with nearly the same inclination beneath the water. But, in such cases, where the reef is distant several miles from the coast, it will be evident upon a little consideration, that a line drawn perpendicularly from its outer edge down to the solid rock on which the reef must be based, very far exceeds that small limit at which the efficient lamelliform corals exist.

In some parts of the sea, as we shall hereafter mention, reefs do occur which fringe rather than encircle islands—the distance from the shore being so small, where the inclination of the land is great, that there is no difficulty in understanding growth of the coral. Even in these "fringing" reefs, as I shall call them in contradistinction to the "encircling", the reef is not attached quite close to the shore. This appears to be the result of two causes: namely, first, that the water immediately adjoining the beach is rendered turbid by the surf, and theretbre injurious to all zoophytes; and, secondly, that the larger and efficient kinds only flourish on the outer edge amidst the breakers of the open sea. The shallow space between the skirting reef and the shore has, however, a very different character from the deep channel, similarly situated with respect to those of the encircling order.

Having thus specified the several kinds of reefs, which differ in their forms and relative position with regard to the neighbouring land, but which are most closely similar in all other respects (as I could show if I had space), it will, I think, be allowed that no [p.357] explanation can he satisfactory which does not include the whole series. The theory which I would offer, is simply, that as the land with the attached reefs subsides very gradually from the action of subterranean causes, the coral-building polypi soon raise again their solid masses to the level of the water: but not so with the land; each inch lost is irreclaimably gone;—as the whole gradually sinks, the water gains foot by foot on the shore, till the fast and highest peak is finally submerged. . . .

It will at once be evident that a coral reef, closely skirting the shore of a continent, would, in like manner after each subsidence, rise to the surface; the water, however, always encroaching on the land. Would not a barrier reef necessarily be produced, similar to the one extending parallel to the coast of Australia? It is indeed but uncoiling one of those reefs which encircle at a distance so many islands.

Thus the three great classes of reef, lagoon, encircling, and barrier, are connected by one theory. It will perhaps be remarked, if this be true, there ought to exist every intermediate form between a closely-encircled and a lagoon island. Such forms actually occur m various parts of the ocean: we have one, two, or more islands encircled in one reef; and of these some are of small proportional size to the area enclosed by the coral formation; so that a series of charts might be given, showing a gradation of character between the two classes.

THE SETTLING OF CRYSTALS IN MOLTEN LAVA

From Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands, pp.117–119, London, 1844.

. . . One side of Fresh-water Bay, in James Island, is formed by the wreck of a large crater, mentioned in the last chapter, of which the interior has been filled up by a pool of basalt, about 200 feet in thickness. This basalt is of a gray colour, and contains many crystals of glassy albite, which become much more numerous in the lower, scoriaceous part. This is contrary to what might have been expected, for if the crystals had been originally disseminated in equal numbers, the greater intumescence of this lower scoriaceous part would have made them appear fewer in number. Von Buch ³ has described a stream of obsidian on the peak of Teneriffe, in which the crystals of feldspar become more and more numerous, as [p.358] the depth or thickness increases, so that near the lower surface of the stream the lava even resembles a primary rock. Von Buch further states, that M. Dree, in his experiments in melting lava, found that the crystals of feldspar always tended to precipitate themselves to the bottom of the crucible, in these cases, I presume there can he no doubt that the crystals sink from their weight. The specific gravity of feldspar varies from 2.4 to 2.58, whilst obsidian seems commonly to be from 2.3 to 2.4; and in a fluidified state its specific gravity would probably be less, which would facilitate the sinking of the crystals of feldspar. At James Island, the crystals of albite, although no doubt of less weight than the gray basalt, in the parts where compact, might easily be of greater specific gravity than the scoriaceous mass, formed of melted lava and bubbles of heated gas.

The sinking of crystals through a viscid substance like molten rock, as is unequivocally shown to have been the ease in the experiments of M. Drée, is worthy of further consideration, as throwing fight on the separation of the trachytic and basaltic series of lavas. Mr. P. Scrope has speculated on this subject; but he does not seem to have been aware of any positive facts, such as those above given; and he has overlooked one very necessary element, as it appears to me, in the phenomenon namely, the existence of either the lighter or heavier mineral in globules or in crystals. In a substance of imperfect fluidity, like molten rock, it is hardly credible, that the separate, infinitely small atoms, whether of feldspar, augite, or of any other mineral, would have power from their slightly different gravities to overcome the friction caused by their movement; but if the atoms of any one of these minerals became, whilst the others remained fluid, united into crystals or granules, it is easy to perceive that from the lessened friction, their sinking or floating power would be greatly increased. On the other hand, if all the minerals became granulated at the same time, it is scarcely possible, from their mutual resistance, that any separation could take place. A valuable, practical discovery, illustrating the effect of the granulation of one element in a fluid mass, in aiding its separation, has lately been made: when lead containing a small proportion of silver, is constantly stirred whilst cooling, it becomes granulated, and the grains or imperfect crystals of nearly pure lead sink to the bottom, leaving a residue of melted metal much richer in silver; whereas if the mixture be left undisturbed, although kept [p.359] fluid for a length of time, the two metals show no signs of separating. ⁴ The sole use of the stirring seems to be the formation of detached granules.

THE NATURE OF GRANITE CONTACTS

From Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands, pp.148–150, London, 1844.

After the accounts given by Barrow, Carmichael, Basil Hall, and W. B. Clarke of the geology of this district [Cape of Good Hope], I shall confine myself to a few observations on the junction of the three principal formations. The fundamental rock is granite, ⁵ overlaid by clay-slate; the latter is generally hard, and glossy from containing minute scales of mica; it alternates with, and passes into, beds of slightly crystalline, feldspathic, slaty rock. This clay-slate is remarkable from being in some places (as on the Lion’s Rump) decomposed, even to the depth of twenty feet, into a pale-coloured, sandstone-like rock, which has been mistaken, I believe, by some observers, for a separate formation. I was guided by Dr. Andrew Smith to a fine junction at Green Point between the granite and clay-slate: the latter at the distance of a quarter of a mile from the spot, where the granite appears on the beach (though, probably, the granite is much nearer underground), becomes slightly more compact and crystalline. At a less distance, some of the beds of clay-slate are of a homogeneous texture, and obscurely striped with different zones of colour, whilst others are obscurely spotted. Within a hundred yards of the first vein of granite, the clay-slate consists of several varieties; some compact with a tinge of purple, others, glistening with numerous minute scales of mica [p.360] and imperfectly crystallised feldspar; some obscurely granular, others porphyritic with small, elongated spots of a soft white mineral, which being easily corroded, gives to this variety a vesicular appearance. Close to the granite, the clay slate is changed into a dark-coloured, laminated rock, having a granular fracture, which is due to imperfect crystals of feldspar, coated by minute, brilliant, scales of mica.

The actual junction between the granitic and day-state districts extends over a width of about 200 yards, and consists of irregular masses of numerous dikes of granite, entangled and surrounded by the day-slate: most of the dikes range in a NW. and SE. line, parallel to the cleavage of the slate. As we leave the junction, thin beds, and lastly, mere films of the altered clay-slate are seen, quite isolated, as if floating, in the coarsely-crystallised granite; but although completely detached, they all retain traces of the uniform NW. and SE. cleavage. This fact has been observed in other similar cases, and has been advanced by some eminent geologists, ⁶ as a great difficulty on the ordinary theory of granite having been injected whilst liquefied; but if we reflect on the probable state of the lower surface of a laminated mass, like clay-slate, after having been violently arched by a body of molten granite, we may con-elude that it would be full of fissures parallel to the planes of cleavage; and that these would he filled with granite, so that wherever the fissures were close to each other, mere parting layers or wedges of the slate would depend into the granite. Should, therefore, the whole body of rock afterwards become worn down and denuded, the lower cads of these dependent masses or wedges of slate would be left quite isolated in the granite; yet they would retain their proper lines of cleavage, from having been united, whilst the granite was fluid, with a continuous covering of clay-slate.

Following, in company with Dr. A. Smith, the line of junction between the granite and the slate, as it stretched inland, in a SE. direction, we came to a place, where the slate was converted into a fine-grained, perfectly characterised gneiss, composed of yellowish-brown granular feldspar, of abundant black brilliant mica, and of few and thin laminae of quartz. From the abundance of the mica in this gneiss, compared with the small quantity and [p.361] excessively minute scales, in which it exists in the glossy clay-slate, we must conclude, that it has been here formed by the metamorphic action—a circumstance doubted, under nearly similar circumstances, by some authors. The laminae of the clay-slate are straight; and it was interesting to observe, that as they assumed the character of gneiss, they became undulatory with some of the smaller flexures angular, like the laminae of many true metamorphic schists.

RECENT UPLIFT OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN COAST

From Geological Observations in South America, pp.14–16, London, 1846.

Not only has the above specified long range of coast (of South America) been elevated within the recent period, but I think it may be safely inferred from the similarity in height of the gravel-capped plains at distant points, that there has been a remarkable degree of equability in the elevatory process. I may premise, that when I measured the plains, it was simply to ascertain the heights at which shells occurred; afterwards, comparing these measurements with some of those made during the Survey, I was struck with their uniformity, and accordingly tabulated all those which represented the summit-edges of plains. The extension of the 330 to 355 feet plain is very striking, being found over a space of 500 geographical miles in a north and south line. A table of the measurements is here given. The angular measurements and all the estimations are by the Officers of the Survey; the barometrical ones by myself:—

                                          Feet
Gallegos River to Coy Inlet (partly angular
  meas. and partly estim.) . . . . . . . .  350
South Side of Santa Cruz (ang. and barom.
  meas.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  355
North Side of do. (ang. m.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Bird Island, plain opposite to (ang. m.). . 350
Port Desire, plain extending far along coast
  (barom. m.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
St. George’s Bay, north promontory (aug. m.) 330
Table Land, south of New Bay (ang. m.). . . 350

A plain, varying from 245 to 255 feet, seems to extend with much uniformity from Port Desire to the north of St. George’s Bay, a [p.362] distance of 170 miles; and some approximate measurements, also given in the following table, indicate the much greater extension of 780 miles:—

                                           Feet
Coy Inlet, south of (partly ang. m. and
  partly estim.) . . . . . . . . . . . 200 to 300
Port Desire (barom. m.). . . . . . . . . . . . 245 to 255
C. Blanco (ang. m.) . . . . . . . . . . 250
North Promontory of St. Gcorge’s Bay
  (ang. m.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
South of New Bay (ang. m.). . . . . . . 200 to 220
North of S. Josef (estim.). . . . . . . 200 to 300
Plain of Rio Negro (ang. in.) . . . . . . . . . . . 200 to 220
Bahia Blanca (estim.) . . . . . . . . . 200 to 300

The extension, moreover, of the 560 to 580, and of the 80 to 100 feet, plains is remarkable, though somewhat less obvious than in the former cases. Bearing in mind that I have not picked these measurements out of a series, but have used all those which represented the edges of plains, I think it scarcely possible that these coincidences in height should be accidental. We must therefore conclude that the action, whatever it may have been, by which these plains have been modelled into their present forms, has been singularly uniform.

These plains or great terraces, of which three and four often rise like steps one behind the other, are formed by the denudation of the old Patagonian tertiary beds, and by the deposition on their surfaces of a mass of well-rounded gravel, varying, near the coast, from ten to thirty-five feet in thickness, but increasing in thickness towards the interior. The gravel is often capped by a thin irregular bed of sandy earth. The plains slope up, though seldom sensibly to the eye, from the summit-edge of one escarpment to the foot of the next highest one. Within a distance of 150 miles, between Santa Cruz to Port Desire, where the plains are particularly well developed, there are at least seven stages or steps, one above the other. On the three lower ones, namely, those of 100 feet, 250 feet, and350 feet in height, existing littoral shells are abundantly strewed, either on the surface, or partially embedded in the superficial sandy earth. By whatever action these three lower plains have been modelled, so undoubtedly have all the [p.363] higher ones, up to a height of 950 feet at S. Julian, and of 1,200 feet (by estimation) along St. George’s Bay. I think it will not be disputed, considering the presence of the upraised marine shells, that the sea has been the active power during stages of some kind in the elevatory process.

THE IMPERFECTION OF THE GEOLOGIC RECORD OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT

From The Origin of Species, pp. 341–345, London, 1859.

I have attempted to show that the geological record is extremely imperfect; that only a small portion of the globe has been geologically explored with care; that only certain classes of organic beings have been largely preserved in a fossil state; that the number both of specimens and of species, preserved in our museums, is absolutely as nothing compared with the incalculable number of generations which must have passed away even during a single formation; that, owing to subsidence being necessary for the accumulation of fossiliferous deposits thick enough to resist future degradation, enormous intervals of time have elapsed between the successive formations; that there has probably been more extinction during the periods of elevation, and during the latter the record will have been least perfectly kept; that each single formation has not been continuously deposited; that the duration of each formation is, perhaps, short compared with the average duration of specific forms; that migration has played an important part in the first appearance of new forms in any one area and formation; that widely ranging species are those which have varied most, and have oftenest given rise to new species; and that varieties have at first often been local. All these causes taken conjointly, must have tended to make the geological record extremely imperfect, and will to a large extent explain why we do not find interminable varieties, connecting together all the extinct and existing forms of life by the finest graduated steps.

He who rejects these views on the nature of the geological record, will rightly reject my whole theory. For he may ask in vain where are the numberless transitional links which must formerly have connected the closely allied or representative species, found in the several stages of the same great formation. He may disbelieve in the enormous intervals of time which have elapsed between our [p.364] consecutive formations; he may overlook how important a part migration must have played, when the formations of any one great region alone, as that of Europe, are considered; he may urge the apparent, but often falsely apparent, sudden coming in of whole groups of species. He may ask where are the remains of those infinitely numerous organisms which must have existed long before the first bed of the Silurian system was deposited: I can answer this latter question only hypothetically, by saying that as far as we can see, where our oceans now extend they have for an enormous period extended, and where our oscillating continents now stand they have stood ever since the Silurian epoch; but that long before that period, the world may have presented a wholly different aspect; and that the older continents, formed of formations older than any known to us, may, now all be in a metamorphosed condition, or may lie buried under the ocean.

Passing from these difficulties, all the other great leading facts in palaeontology seem to me simply to follow on the theory of descent with modification through natural selection. We can thus understand how it is that new species come in slowly and successively; how species of different classes do not necessarily change together, or at the same rate, or in the same degree; yet in the long run that all undergo modification to some extent. . . .

We can understand how the spreading of the dominant forms of life, which are those that oftenest vary, will in the long run tend to people the world with allied, but modified, descendants; and these will generally succeed in taking the places of those groups of species which are their inferiors in the struggle for existence. Hence, after long intervals of time, the productions of the world will appear to have changed simultaneously. . . .

The inhabitants of each successive period in the world’s history have beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, in so far, higher in the scale of nature; and this may account for that vague yet ill-defined sentiment, felt by many palaeontologists, that organization on the whole has progressed. If it should hereafter be proved that ancient animals resemble to a certain extent the embryos of more recent animals of the same class, the fact will be intelligible. The succession of the same types of structure within the same areas during the later geological periods ceases to be mysterious, and is simply explained by inheritance.

Footnotes

1 The sketch was read before the Geological Society, May, 1837.

2 Mr. De la Beche, however, seems to have been fully aware of the difficulty. He says, "there are certain situations, where coral reefs run, as it were, in a line with the coast, but separated from it by deep water, which would seem to require a different explanation."—Geological Manual, p. 142.

3 "Description des Isles Canaries," pp. 190 and 191.

4 A full and interesting account of this discovery, by Mr. Pattinson, was read before the British Association in September, 1838. In some alloys, according to Turner ("Chemistry," p. 210), the heaviest metal sinks, and it appears that this takes place whilst both metals are fluid, Where there is a considerable difference in gravity, as between iron and the slag formed during the fusion of the ore, we need not be surprised at the atoms separating, without either substance being granulated.

5 In several places I observed in the granite, small dark-coloured balls, composed of minute scales of black mica in a tough basis, In another place. I found crystals of black schorl radiating from a common center. Dr. Andrew Smith found, in the interior parts of the country, some besutiful specimens of granite, with silvery mica radiating or rather branching, like moss, from central points. At the Geological Society, there are specimens of granite with crystallised feldspar branching and radiating in like manner.

6 See M. Keilhau’s "Theory on Granite," translated in the "Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal," vol. XXIV, p. 402.