Man of the Hour…a Comparison of Leadership
The year 1933 was one of great change in Germany and the United States. As the year opened, President von Hindenburg named Adolf Hitler chancellor of Germany and Franklin Roosevelt succeeded Herbert Hoover as President of the United States. On opposite sides of the Atlantic, two journeys to world power began almost simultaneously.
Let’s compare the first 100 days of Roosevelt’s leadership with Hitler’s first 100 days of leadership to see how each sought to handle the severe economic and political distress in his nation. Keep in mind that Hitler came to power over a 14-year-old republic with little democratic tradition, while Roosevelt assumed the reins of a government with 150 years of democratic experience. Nevertheless, we shall proceed as if the two leaders started from the same place at approximately the same time, and that both faced the same problems in approximately the same context—an economic depression within a democratic republic.
As you can see, both leaders moved quickly and dramatically to fulfill their goals—Hitler in the political arena and Roosevelt in the economic realm. Both used extraordinary measures not seen in their countries before. You will notice that Hitler used his position to solidify his own control and subsequently to stifle all political opposition. Roosevelt, on the other hand, set out to tackle the nation’s economic troubles, borrowing ideas and assistance from many quarters. Their first 100 days of governing set the tone for their subsequent years of rule, which in both cases ended with death in April 1945.
The document reproduced is a telegram from U.S. Ambassador Frederic M. Sackett to Secretary of State Cordell Hull. The telegram reports on Hitler’s actions to consolidate his power on March 23, 1933. (See time line.) On the basis of the Empowering Act, referred to in the telegram, Hitler and the cabinet assumed all powers of government, rendering the actions of the Reichstag without authority. With the subsequent abolition of the political parties except the National Socialists in July, the Reichstag lost its representative function entirely and served only as a conduit for der Fuehrer’s decrees. In August 1934, after the death of President von Hindenburg, Chancellor Hitler further consolidated his power by assuming the presidency himself.
The document is No. 862.00/2930, in the Decimal File, 1930-39, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59.
Teaching Activities
Before you begin to discuss the telegram with students, be sure that they under-stand the following terms used in the document.
Reichstag—The lower house of the German legislature created by the 1919 Constitution. The Reichstag was popularly elected and possessed the power to make law.
Reichsrath—The upper house of the legislature, which was a council of state government representatives (from Prussia,Bavaria, etc.) and could, according to the Constitution, veto laws passed by the Reichstag.
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1933—United States
March 4 Franklin Delano Roosevelt inaugurated President.
March 6 President Roosevelt declares four-day national banking holiday to prevent further bank closings.
March 9 Roosevelt convenes Congress in special session. Congress introduces and passes Emergency Banking Relief Act, granting broad discretionary powers to the President to meet the economic crisis.
March 10 Roosevelt requests passage of Economy Act to cut government salaries and veterans’ pensions to ease strain on government budget. Bill passes March 20.
March 12 Roosevelt broadcasts first radio "fireside chat" to reassure populace of government’s ability to solve economic crisis.
March 22 Roosevelt requests amendment to Volstead Act to legalize and tax the sale of wine and beer, thus Increasing federal revenues. Passes April 1.
March 31 Congress creates Civilian Conservation Corps to put to work thousands of unemployed young men.
April 19 United States abandons gold standard.
May 12 Congress enacts Federal Emergency Relief Act to provide states with matching grants for relief for the unemployed.
May 12 Congress passes Agricultural Adjustment Act to relieve farmers through subsidies for reducing acreage in production and other financial support. (The Supreme Court would declare the AAA unconstitutional three years later.)
May 18 Congress authorizes Tennessee Valley Authority, first giant federal public utility project, to harness the power of the Tennessee River in Alabama for the production of electricity, to serve the region’s energy needs, to create jobs, and to develop area’s natural resources.
June 6 Congress establishes Employment Service to coordinate and streamline state employment efforts.
June 13 Congress passes Home Owners Refinancing Act, establishing the Home Owners Loan Corporation to refinance long-term home mortgages at lower interest rates.
June 16 Congress establishes Federal Bank Deposit Insurance Corporation to federally insure bank deposits to restore depositor confidence.
June 16 Congress passes Farm Credit Act to refinance long-term, low interest mortgages for farms, providing same support for farmers that the HOLC offers home owners.
June 16 Congress authorizes National Industrial Recovery Act to revive business and to |
decrease unemployment through increased business cooperation. Creates Public Works Administration to provide jobs through public works projects. (The Supreme Court would declare the NRA unconstitutional in 1936.)
June 16 Special session of Congress adjourns.
1933—Germany
January 30 President yon Hindenburg appoints National Socialist (Nazi) party leader Adolf Hitler chancellor of German Federal Republic. Hitler tops a cabinet of three National Socialist ministers and eight ministers from other parties.
February 1 Hitler pressures yon Hindenburg to dissolve Reichstag and to call for new elections In an effort to strengthen Nazi representation in that body.
February 4 Under pressure from Hitler, von Hindenburg Issues a decree limiting freedom of the press and prohibiting free assembly.
February 6 In an effort to centralize political control, Hitler pressures yon Hindenburg to disband Prussia’s representative legislature. Similar actions in other states across Germany would follow.
February 27 Reichstag building in Berlin is destroyed by fire. Hitler blames incident on Communist Party.
February 28 President von Hindenburg declares a state of emergency, suspending habeas corpus and other civil liberties. (The state of emergency would remain in effect until Hitler’s death.)
March 5 In the national election of a new Reichstag, 89% of the German voters cast their votes. The National Socialists win 43.9% of the votes. The traditional coalition of four moderate parties, long the basis of majority actions in the Reichstag, can no longer out-vote the Nazi members.
March 8 Concentration camps established for internment of political "undesirables."
March 13 Hitler names Joseph Goebbels to newly-created position of minister of propaganda.
March 23 Reichstag passes Empowering Act, surrendering its own constitutional authority to make law to Chancellor Hitler and the cabinet.
April 1 First government-sponsored boycott of Jewish businesses fails. German people refuse to cooperate and pressure is brought to bear on the German government by the international business community.
April 7 National Socialist Civil Service Act establishes new standard for government service, including removal of all non-Aryans and opponents of Nazi rule from the service. |
Chancellor—Leader of the cabinet of ministers, which made policy and executed laws for the federal government. The chancellor and cabinet were appointed by the president.
President—The popularly elected leader of the republic with four main powers: the appointment of governmental officials (including chancellor and cabinet), the conduct of foreign affairs, the leadership of the military, and the authority to declare a state of emergency for the nation.
sine die—Latin term meaning "without fixing a day for future action or meeting."
Sackett—Frederic M. Sackett, U.S. Ambassador to Germany, appointed by Herbert Hoover; sender of the telegram to Cordell Hull.
During the 1920s and 1930s, seven major political parties held seats in the Reichstag: the National People’s Party, the People’s Party, the Democratic Party, the Catholic Center Party, the Social Democratic Party, the Communist Party, and the National Socialist (Nazi) Party. The rise of popularity of the Nazi Party was dramatic. It captured only 2.6 percent of the popular vote in the Reichstag elections in 1928, but by the 1932 elections, Nazi Party members had gained 33.1 percent of the vote. However, a coalition of parties still maintained a ruling majority in the Reichstag. The March 1933 elections gave the Nazis 43.9 percent of the vote, for the first time overcoming the strength of the coalition.
You may wish to reproduce or post the time lines for handy reference for your students.
1. Consider one or more of the following questions raised by the telegram with students.
a. How did the new law described in the telegram increase Adolf Hitler’s power?
b. Why is it significant that the new law allowed the cabinet rather than the legislature to change the constitution?
c. What is the meaning of the sentence beginning: "The two Catholic parties swallowed the bitter pill…."?
2. Consider the following ideas for class discussion and further inquiry.
a. It has been said that extraordinary circumstances sometimes demand extraordinary measures by governments. Discuss the meaning of this concept with students and develop a list of circumstances that would require a government to assume extraordinary powers: e.g., war, civil disruptions, natural disasters. Once students have developed a list, review it and discuss the limitations on government authority that might be appropriate for each situation.
b. Both Hitler and Roosevelt assumed extraordinary governing powers in their respective countries. Discuss the uses of extraordinary powers by each and how they were alike and different.
c. Develop a list of possible reactions to the German situation that the U.S. Secretary of State might have recommended to the President. As a writing assignment, direct students to draft a reply to Sackett’s telegram outlining the U.S. position.
d. President von Hindenburg had the position and authority to resist Adolf Hitler’s power plays and yet he did not. Direct students to investigate von Hindenburg—his background, selection as president of the Weimar Republic, and relationship to Adolf Hitler. In a short writing assignment, ask students to describe von Hindenburg’s role in Hitler’s rise to power.